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 Ancient records show that
the Egyptians, Chinese and Persians practiced preservation, drinking water
sanitation, antisepsis for wounds and injuries, and both physical and chemical
methods for mummification. A recurring theme in history was the belief that
epidemic diseases were spread by something in the air. A prime example of
this idea is the record that Hippocrates attempted to drive the plague from
Athens by lighting fires of aromatic wood in the streets.
In the 19th century, Louis
Pasteur was credited with dispelling the belief in spontaneous generation.
John Tyndall, in the late 1800s, showed that spores were resistant to boiling
and, if given time, could germinate. Their vegetative offspring could be
killed by repetitive heating. This technique became known as Tyndallisation.
Nicholas Appert (1810) demonstrated
methods for preserving food during long sea voyages by sealing vegetables
and fruit in glass jars and heating them. In England in 1842, Chadwick proposed
that filth led to disease which in turn led to loss of income and consequent
poverty. Following this lead, Snow showed that cholera was transmitted by
a contaminated water supply in 1855. Budd (1856) demonstrated that typhoid
fever was not caused by bad odors but rather by an agent carried through
sewage to the drinking water and milk.
Pasteur (1857), who developed
the process known as "pasteurization" to control microorganisms,
showed that souring of milk was due to microorganisms. In 1886 he helped
solve spoilage problems in the wine industry. Semmelweiss proved that puerperal
fever could be prevented if physicians washed their hands after performing
autopsies and prior to assisting in childbirth.
William Henry published
studies in the 1830s on the "disinfection power of increased temperatures
with a view for the suggestion of a substitute for quarantine." Based
on the first published results regarding the use of sterilizers, Pasteur,
Koch and Wolffhugel developed scientifically based procedures for both dry
heat and steam sterilization in the late 1800s.
Many disinfectants have
been in use for 150-200 years and have stood the test of time. Chemicals
such as pitch, wine, copper and silver were the earliest disinfectants.
Mercury had been known since the fourth century. Mercuric chloride was used
by Arab physicians as an antiseptic and a wood preservative. Coal, tar and
wood tar were some of the first compounds to be used as disinfectants in
the distilling industries and were used to preserve ship timber in the early
1700s. Chlorine and formaldehyde were discovered in 1744 and 1859 respectively.
Chlorine was introduced for water treatment in 1843 and is still used for
this purpose today. Copper sulfate, zinc chloride and sodium permanganate,
acids, alkalis, sulfurs and alcohols were disinfectants introduced in the
mid-1800s.?
During this century, scientists
have utilized better techniques for studying, growing and isolating microorganisms.
This has furthered the development of a larger arsenal of more effective
antimicrobials to solve specific problems. Considerable effort today is
spent studying efficacy and human and environmental toxicity in order to
develop even better biocides.
In addition to identifying
new biocides, scientists continue to improve their knowledge of the application
of these materials. Only minute quantities of biocidal actives are required
for effective control. Today, the right biocide for a specific application
comes from a partnership between the biocide manufacturer and user, identifying
specific problems and then researching, developing and testing to find a
precise answer.
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